Istituto Lombardo - Accademia di Scienze e Lettere • Incontri di Studio
L’Istituto Lombardo Accademia di Scienze e Lettere è una realtà culturale radicata da più di 200 anni nella città e nel territorio lombardo. L’Istituto, sito a Milano nel quadrilatero di Brera, è innanzitutto sede di memoria, a partire dal prezioso patrimonio archivistico e librario che custodisce, ma anche vivace contesto di riferimento per la ricerca, l’alta formazione e la cultura in genere.
PAGEPress Scientific Publications, Pavia, Italy
Copyright (c) 2022 Istituto Lombardo - Accademia di Scienze e Lettere • Incontri di Studio
EFFETTI DEGLI INTERFERENTI ENDOCRINI SULLE COMUNITÀ DI INVERTEBRATI MARINI
Organic pollutants with disrupting activity on the endocrine system are known as endocrine disrupting compounds (ECDs) and are broadly diffuse on the Planet. By different pathways, they reach the marine environment that is the ultimate collector of these substances. Several researches pointed out acute and chronic effects of these pollutants on the reproduction and development of fish and marine mammals. Fewer studies have been dedicated to explore the effects of ECDs on marine invertebrates though these represent most of marine biodiversity. Researches are hampered by limited knowledge of endocrinology and physiology of several animal groups, which has been studied only for few phyla such as mollusks, annelids and arthropods. The clearest example of endocrine disruption by a chemical compound in marine environment is the pseudo-hermaphroditism caused in females of prosobranch mollusks by the exposure to tributyltin, an antifouling agent used in the paints for ships. This molecule has an adverse effect also on crustaceans in which it inhibits the signaling pathway of the molting hormone. Several studies evidenced that lot of marine invertebrate species are sensible to the action of estrogenic compounds (xeno-estrogens) such as Bisphenol A and Nonylphenol that are used in the manufacturing of the plastic materials. Nevertheless, molecular mechanisms responsible for the observed effects are still uncertain. In my laboratory, we demonstrated that tunicates, that do not have estrogen receptors, are sensible to the action of xeno-estrogens that act by binding to a different group of receptors, the Estrogen Related Receptors. Since these receptors are present also in mammals, our studies could help to clarify pathogenic mechanisms shared with humans.
RIGENERAZIONE E INTERFERENTI ENDOCRINI NEGLI ECHINODERMI
Regeneration phenomena performed by animals following self-induced or traumatic mutilations are characterized by complex developmental processes distinct from the embryonic ones and finely regulated by endocrine and neuro-humoral mechanisms. Echinoderms are a phylum of marine invertebrates where the regenerative potential is expressed at all the the life cycle stages allowing regeneration of tissues and organs and even of whole individuals from body fragments. The capabilities to easily undergo complex regenerative phenomena provide occasion for a controlled study of physiological developmental processes in adult animals and make Echinoderms ideal models to monitor the effects of environmental contamination, with particular reference to those caused by endocrine disrupters (ED) compounds. In the context of dedicated European and national projects, recent researches were addressed to study the effects of exposure to different classes of ED compounds (polyclorinated biphenyls, organotins, pesticides and others) on regenerative development of Echinoderms: the selected model species was the crinoid Antedon mediterranea. The obtained results showed that a prolonged exposure to ED compounds has a relevant impact on regeneration mechanisms inducing in the exposed individuals 1) anomalies in terms of regeneration times, morphogenesis, histogenesis and differentiation, 2) remarkable alterations of steroid hormons levels, showing a close concentration/effect correlation for all the tested compounds.
INTERFERENTI ENDOCRINI: VALUTAZIONE DEL RISCHIO DI EFFETTI SULLA RIPRODUZIONE E SVILUPPO EMBRIONALE
The definition of endocrine disruptor includes those compounds that cause adverse effects by a mechanism of action involving one, or rarely, more components of the complex of hormones that regulate the life of a higher organism. This classification differs from other toxicological classifications because it considers a mode of action rather than an effect. Like all quality classifications, and not based on quantitative data such as the dose-response relationship and the estimation of exposure, typical of risk assessment, it is not very useful for the management of substances so classified. In fact, decisions based on dichotomous classifications, interfering/non-interfering, can only be dichotomous, approved/non-approved use. Toxicity studies performed on the experimental animal identify the apical effects, including those that can result from a mechanism involving the hormonal system. On the basis of the dose response relationship for these effects, it is possible to identify the dose without effect (No Observable Adverse Effect Level, NOAEL, generally expressed in mg/kg body weight) and from this, dividing by appropriate factors, called safety or uncertainty factors, the exposure limit is defined (for example the Acceptable Daily Intake, ADI). If effects possibly related to endocrine disruption are observed, specific in vitro, in vivo or even computational studies may be conducted to understand the mechanism underlying the observed effect and, possibly, to a more accurate definition of the dose response relationship. Therefore, the simple classification as endocrine disruptor should not preclude the quantitative approach to risk assessment, and the classification should not be use alone to take risk management decisions.
FTALATI: PROPRIETÀ CHIMICO FISICHE E TOSSICITÀ
Phthalates are esters of phthalic acid. They constitute a class of synthetic chemical compounds produced in massive quantities and mainly used in the production of plastics, in particular of polyvinyl chloride, commonly referred to as PVC, used for the production of widely used products. In 2014, the world production of phthalates was 5 million tons per year, with a growing trend linked to the increase in consumption in Asian countries. Phthalates are released into the environment and are currently considered ubiquitous pollutants. They are taken daily by humans through the food chain and various biomonitoring campaigns indicate them as present in human biological fluids. Although numerous studies indicate that phthalates can be degraded by bacteria and fungi in aerobic, anoxic and anaerobic conditions, the extent of degradation largely depends on environmental conditions. Since phthalates have long been considered responsible for side effects on health, restrictions on their use have been introduced into the laws of many countries. However, the same countries hesitate to completely ban their use as they are very effective in modulating the mechanical properties of PVC and their cost / benefit ratio is particularly favorable when compared with that of possible substitutes. The analysis of the physico-chemical properties of phthalates helps to explain the role played in PVC formulations and their diffusion in the environment.
TARGET BIOLOGICI DEGLI INTERFERENTI ENDOCRINI
The study of the biological impact of exposure to endocrine disruptors is a complex and constantly updated subject. Recent evidence shows, in fact, that even exposure to low dosages of these substances during embryonic development is able to alter the biology of cells, tissues and organs of both the individual himself and his progeny for at least three successive generations. The enormous impact of substances released currently and/or in the past into the environment falls both on human health and on wild and farmed animal species. Although the synthesis and commercialization of substances that are currently known as endocrine disruptors dates back to a century ago, the term endocrine disruptor was proposed later, in 1993 and identifies any exogenous substance (natural or synthetic) capable to interfere with normal hormonal functions, with the synthesis of hormones, with their transport within the body or with their catabolism. The alterations induced by endocrine disruptors can have the adult individual as a general target but are particularly worrying if the target is the developing embryo due to the nowadays known transgenerational effects. Finally, the toxicology of endocrine disruptors cannot ignore the evaluation of the effects on populations and, ultimately, on ecosystems. The essay illustrates the effects of some known endocrine disruptors at various levels, from molecular action to transgenerational effects, and the endocrine disruptor hypothesis which states that environmental endocrine disruptors have an impact on animal health altering the expression of key genes during embryonic development.
INTERFERENTI ENDOCRINI: EFFETTI E MECCANISMI
Endocrine disruptors (ED) are a heterogeneous group of substances capable of inducing adverse health effects by altering, through various mechanisms and targets, the functioning of the endocrine system. Given the widespread presence in the environment and in foods, the assessment and reduction of the risks associated with ED exposure is an important public health issue. The article specifically takes into consideration two aspects: the long-term effects (reproductive, neurobehavioral, metabolic) of exposures during pre- and post-natal development; the importance of the study and interpretation of ED mechanisms for the purposes of risk assessment, also using the Adverse Outcome Pathways approach.
SALUTO DEL PRESIDENTE DELL'ISTITUTO LOMBARDO
After the revolutions in information technology, molecular biology and genomics which have taken place in the last few decades, the meeting and convergence of engineering, physical sciences and life sciences is commonly considered a new scientific paradigm that will characterize this century. Advances in computer science, materials, imaging, micro and nanotechnology, computational modelling merged with biomedicine are already providing new devices, tools and processes for diagnosis, therapy, rehabilitation which have deeply transformed medicine. But this new paradigm is not a one-way street: concepts and models derived from biology are also stimulating new finding in different fields of engineering. This interdisciplinary sector has recently played a central role in the interest of researchers and policy makers worldwide and particularly in our region. In this contest the Organising Committee has invited a number of outstanding scientists from Universities, Hospitals and Industries to provide a general frame of common concepts and methods characterising this interdisciplinary field focusing their attention on those research which have strongly impacted on medical practice. The following three topics have been considered to illustrate in a paradigmatic way the relevant outcomes from this research equally interesting for medicine, engineering and technological transfer : the multimodal imaging for diagnosis and treatments, the image guided surgery and radiotherapy and recent achievements in artificial organs and tissue engineering in regenerative medicine.
Developments in high resolution probes, data processing techniques and contrast means are providing a new generation of ultrasound technologies for diagnostic purposes. In this paper new results are presented derived from research performed at the Ultrasound Laboratory of the University of Florence. A new hardware and software platform called Fast Ecographic Multi Image Novel Apparatus (FEMMINA) has been developed based on innovative features. The radiofrequency signals, directly provided by the US transducers, contains fundamental information on the linear and non linear interaction of US with biological tissues. New suitable algorithms have been therefore developed to process on line such radiofrequency signals in order to identify and present information of clinical value. The main concept is the quantification of suitable parameters characterizing the morphology of the local frequency spectrum derived from a little volume of the biological tissue under investigation. Such parameters could be correlated to the microstructure tissue properties and are presented on the traditional tomographic map which are normally present in ultrasound instrumentation. The clinical validation of these techniques are illustrated pointing out the new perspectives for a more efficient and detailed analysis for selected pathologies.
PERSPECTIVES IN THERAPEUTIC INTERVENTIONS
In a very large study performed in USA early diagnosis has been demonstrated to be a key factor in oncology showing more than 90% surviving rate after 5 years for almost all kinds of tumours if the diagnosis was performed in early stage. Moreover the great development in medical imaging techniques (MSCT, Dual EnergyCT, open MR, US) make it possible to combine in only one session diagnosis and surgical intervention: the so called interventional radiology where the same image used for diagnosis is guiding the minimally invasive surgical intervention. Cardiovascular procedures are particularly suited for such approach and balloon angioplasty/stent are widely used to open blocked blood vessels. In oncology mininvasive surgery is particularly used for abdominal organs. In this case US are considered the best mean for guidance during the intervention. The first results on a large number of patients demonstrate the usefulness of intraoperative radiofrequency thermoablation of liver tumour when they are correlate with an accurate ecographic analysis during the intervention and the follow up of the patient. For prostate tumours a new technique based on high-intensity focused ultrasounds (HIFU) has shown great potentialities.
IMAGE GUIDED NEUROSURGERY: PRESENT STATE AND PERSPECTIVES
The image guided neurosurgery was made possible by the great developments of modern neuroradiology whose origins could be identify in UK on 1974 when Hounsfield invented the computer tomography (CT Scan) and on 1980 Lauterbur developed the first magnetic resonance (MR) allowing the direct visualization of the brain. The term neuronavigation is used to describe the set of computer assisted technologies used by neurosurgeons to guide or “navigateâ€ within the brain. The set of hardware for these purposes is referred to as a “neuronavigatorâ€. Since the beginning the purpose of this technology was to create a mathematical model describing a proposed coordinate system for the space within the skull. This “fiducial spatial coordinate systemâ€ is used as a reference to describe the position of specific structures within this arbitrary defined space with high accuracy. Robust computer technologies made possible the real-time quantitative spatial fusion of images of the patient’s brain with the 3D instantaneous position of surgical instruments or probes detected by motion capture technologies guiding the surgeon to selected targets. The experiences and the results obtained by these new approaches at the Istituto Neurologico Besta are illustrated and the expected developments in the near future are discussed.
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN ASSISTED SURGERY
Computer Aided Surgery is opening new scenarios in medicine aimed to improve the patient’s care by advancing the utilisation of computer into surgical practice which have already provided practical application particularly in orthopaedics and neurosurgery. The recent developments in multimodal 3D medical imaging techniques which are providing with great accuracy and the necessary resolution a clear representation on a multiscale basis of the morphological and functional features of the internal organs and tissues constitute the necessary basis. The interdisciplinary collaboration between engineers and physicians provide new concepts and applications in this field derived from digital modelling and simulation methods for the analysis of complex systems, sensors and motion capture technologies, robotics and mechatronics. Three main phases are described in this paper. The preoperative phase where the information derived from multimodal imaging of each patient is processed by proper mathematical models and simulation techniques to identify the best way to operate (surgical planning). The intraoperative phase where the surgeon is assisted by a “virtual fusionâ€ of the preoperative images of the internal organs of the patients with the effective position of operative instruments recorded by proper trackers. Finally the postoperative phase to evaluate the efficacy of the treatments and the patient’s follow up.
THE IMPACT OF NEW TECHNOLOGIES ON RADIOTHERAPHY
Radiation therapy has been officially recognised as an efficient cancer treatment at the International Oncology Congress in Paris on 1922, 25 years after the discovery of X-rays by W. Roentgen and since then tremendous progresses have been made on the basic knowledge on the biological effects of radiations on tumours and healthy tissues, on the modalities and times for dose delivery, planning and irradiation techniques. It may be used as the primary therapy or combined with surgical or medical therapies or to prevent serious symptoms related to the progression of the disease. In recent years the availability of new technologies and results coming from interdisciplinary research where medical and biological competences are working in strict collaboration with physicists and engineers have contributed to a substantial improvement of this treatment by introducing new concepts and procedures which are presented in this paper. The planning treatment has been revolutionised by the possibility to identify in quantitative way tumours and adjacent normal structures in 3D by image processing of CT and/or MRI and/or PET and using virtual simulation for more accurate placement of radiation beams. An enhancement of this technique is £-Dimensional Conformal Radiotherapy (3DCRT) in which the profile of radiation beam is shaped to fit the profile of the target using a multileaf collimator. In radiosurgery and stereotactic radiotherapy the needed accuracy requires special new techniques to better control the uncertainty related to internal organ motion (for example due to respiration) with real-time adjustment of the radiation beam. The latest developments of Radioisotope Therapy Intra Operative Radiation Therapy and Hadrontherapy are also illustrated.
Con il termine “adroterapiaâ€ si intende la moderna tecnica di radioterapia oncologica che utilizza radiazioni adroniche per ottenere il controllo loco-regionale dei tumori. Sono dette adroni tutte le particelle non elementari fatte di quark: protoni e neutroni (ciascuno composto di tre quark di tipo u e d) sono gli adroni più noti. Anche i nuclei degli atomi, sistemi legati di protoni e neutroni, sono adroni. La cessione di energia di protoni di 200 - 250 MeV in tessuto è tale che, anche con una sola direzione di incidenza, è possibile dare una dose elevata a un bersaglio tumorale che si trova a 25 - 30 centimetri di profondità risparmiando i tessuti sani circostanti, molto meglio di quanto non sia possibile fare anche con le più moderne tecniche che usano i raggi X (IMRT). Gli ioni carbonio da 4500 MeV cedono – in ogni segmento del proprio percorso nel corpo del paziente – venti volte più energia dei protoni che giungono alla stessa profondità . Dato questo elevato trasferimento lineare di energia gli ioni hanno una maggiore efficacia biologica dei protoni e non hanno rivali nel controllo dei tumori radioresistenti. In particolare i risultati preliminari ottenuti a HIMAC (Giappone) su centinaia di tumori del polmone e del fegato sono estremamente incoraggianti. Questo contributo si propone come primo scopo la presentazione dell’enorme sviluppo che si è avuto nell’ultimo triennio per ciò che riguarda i centri ospedalieri di adroterapia, ove con il termine “centro ospedalieroâ€ si intende un centro che è dotato di più sale di trattamento ed è unicamente dedicato alla terapia delle malformazioni e dei tumori anche profondi. Nella seconda parte dell’intervento sono descritti i due principali progetti: il Centro Nazionale di Adroterapia Oncologica (CNAO) in fase di avanzata realizzazione a Pavia e in cui si potranno trattare oltre 1000 pazienti con fasci sia di protoni che di ioni carbonio a partire dal 2008, e il LIBO, il nuovo acceleratore lineare che, messo a valle di un ciclotrone da 30 MeV utilizzato per la diagnostica medica con isotopi radioattivi, permette di accelerare protoni fino a 200 MeV o più in modo da permettere allo stesso centro di praticare la protonterapia.
COULD THE FULLY IMPLANTABLE LIONHEARTTM BE A FUTURE SOLUTION CONSIDERING THE LIMITED NUMBER OF DONORS FOR CARDIAC TRANSPLANT?
Cardiac failure constitutes one of the main health problems in western countries. Despite the recent outstanding progress the pharmaceutical treatment of this condition is not suitable to overcome a great percentage of failures and an insufficient quality of life for many patients. The heart transplantation today is considered the most suitable therapeutic option. However, the limited number of donors compared to the great number of patients on the waiting list constitute a major limitation of this solution. The initial experience on the development of cardiac assist devices conceived as a “bridge to the transplantationâ€ based on mechanical circulatory support has provided encouraging results to use such devices (ventricular assist devices) for a long period which could be considered as an acceptable therapeutic solution. The recent technological developments have made available the necessary miniaturization of the various mechanical components of the system for ventricular assistance and the proper solution for energy supply and control. On the light of the positive results obtained the ventricular assist devices can be considered today a permanent solution for a significant number of patients. This chapter illustrates the first Italian experience on the clinical application of the LionHeart, a totally implantable system for ventricular assistance. A concise description of the system and the surgical technique for implantation are provided and the preliminary results on the short term are discussed. Even considering the limited period of observation, this therapeutic option appears to be safe and suitable for a selected population of patients which cannot be considered proper candidates for heart transplantation.
CARDIAC DISEASES AND SUBSTITUTIVE/REPARATIVE TECHNOLOGIES
Several examples of implantable devices are here considered able to substitute or sustain important physiological functions which have been deteriorated or completely lost. To properly design and implement such devices very complex technological problems must be overcome. They concern the behaviour and the biocompatibility of the materials, the functioning in an hostile environment without possibility of maintenance and finally the need of “mimickingâ€ closely the physiological functions which are not always perfectly known in all circumstances and conditions. The specific needs arising from medicine towards technology are therefore very demanding so that they are stimulating advanced new solutions which in turn are determining significant advancements in various sectors with a strong crossdissemination effects. Three outstanding examples are here considered: the mechanical cardiac valve, the artificial reinforcement of coronaries (stent) and the cardiac defibrillator. For all these cases, the specific problems involved are analysed and the degree of success with which the technology has satisfied the medical requirements are discussed.
REGENERATIVE MEDICINE AND TISSUE ENGINEERING
Tissue engineering and regenerative medicine constitute an emerging multidisciplinary field involving biology, medicine and engineering which is supposed to provide an outstanding contribution to improve the health and quality of life for million of people by restoring, maintaining or enhancing tissue and organ function. In regenerative medicine stem cells are playing a fundamental role: they are characterised by the ability to renew themselves through mitotic cell division and differentiating into a diverse range of specialized cell types. The two broad types of mammalian stem cells are embryonic stem cells that are found in blastocysts, and adult stem cells that are found in adult tissues. In the last few years, the use of stem cells has been proposed for tissue engineering. In conjunction with regenerative medicine it represents a new area of research aimed to restore tissues and organs which have been damaged by traumas, tumors, infective or degenerated pathologies. In the present paper, starting from the outstanding improvement of the basic knowledge recently obtained, the perspectives in this field are illustrated considering also the involved ethical issues and particular attention is paid to the financial and organizational problems which stay at the basis of the industrial development of such technologies.
TISSUE ENGINEERING: FROM RESEARCH TO CLINICAL APPLICATION IN REGENERATIVE MEDICINE
Tissue engineering strategies have recently emerged as the most advanced therapeutic option presently available in regenerative medicine. Tissue engineering encompasses the use of cells and their molecules in artificial constructs that compensate for lost or impaired body functions. It is based upon scaffoldguided tissue regeneration and involves the seeding of porous, biodegradable scaffolds with donor cells, which become differentiated and mimic naturally occurring tissues. These tissue-engineered constructs are then implanted into the patient to replace diseased or damaged tissues. Our approach to regenerative medicine is based on hyaluronan derivative polymers. HYAFF® is a class of hyaluronan derivative polymers obtained by coupling reaction. The strategy behind the creation of these polymers was to improve the stability of the polymer by esterifying the free carboxyl group of glucuronic acid, frequently repeated along the hyaluronic acid chain, with different types of alcohols. Once esterification of the polymer has been obtained, the material can easily be processed to produce membranes, fibres, sponges, microspheres and other devices, by extrusion, lyophilization or spray drying. A broad variety of polymers can be subsequently generated either by changing the type of ester group introduced or the extent of the esterification. The benzyl esters of hyaluronan, termed HYAFF®-11, are one of the most characterized HYAFF® polymers, from both the physicochemical and biological viewpoints, produced starting from hyaluronan of about 200 KDa. The ideal scaffold for tissue engineering should provide an immediate support to cells and have mechanical properties matching those of the tissue being repaired. Gradually then the material should be resorbed, as the cells begin secreting their own extracellular matrix, thus allowing for an optimal integration between newformed and existing tissue. Extensive biocompatibility studies have demonstrated the safety of HYAFF® scaffolds and their ability to be resorbed in the absence of an inflammatory response. Moreover, when implanted tend to promote the recapitulation of the events that facilitate tissue repair. HYAFF®-11 three-dimensional matrices support the in vitro growth of highly viable chondrocytes and fibroblasts. Similarly, micro-perforated membrane supports the growth and differentiation of keratinocytes. These cells, previously expanded on plastic and hence seeded into the HYAFF® scaffold, produce a characteristic extracellular matrix rich in proteoglycans expressing the typical markers of the tissues of their origin. Hyaluronan presents a variety of multi-functional activity being both a structural and informational molecule. Investigation of hyaluronan synthesis and degradation, the identification of new receptors and binding proteins and the elucidation of hyaluronan-dependent signaling pathways keep providing novel insights into the true biological functions of this intriguing polymer. The possibility to elaborate this natural polymer in different physical forms, as HYAFF® biopolymers family is allowing to do, has given the opportunity to translate tissue engineering strategies in clinical practice providing a biomaterial that induces and modulates the sequence of events that lead to damage tissue restoration. The following chapter will report how tissue engineering approach and hyaluronic acid technology could improve the biological function of cell transplantation in the treatment of tissue defects, in particular for skin and cartilage tissue restoration.
Taken all together the papers here presented, behind the specific topic, clearly show how the convergence of medicine and technology represent an highly developing pervasive field of research with relevant implications on our society at different levels. Relevant results can be obtained only by a unique combination of skills and in-depth knowledge in medicine/biology and engineering that enables researchers to identify emerging problems, to define research and development goals and to solve them in a unique way requiring equal expertise in engineering and biomedicine and a true integration of both. There is also a strong shift of focus to the cellular and molecular levels and their integration into the complex systems of higher level structural and functional organization. This emerging scientific paradigm will provide new knowledge as well as a new generation of diagnostics and therapeutics enabling the innovation needed to meet the growing demand for accessible and sustainable health care. Finally the exiting scientific goals combined with the practical applications oriented to fight diseases and to improve human condition make this field particularly attractive to young researchers to whom this initiative is mainly devoted.
Ai Colleghi, alle Signore e ai Signori presenti, il più caldo benvenuto e il più cordiale vivo saluto mio personale e del Presidente dell’Istituto, prof. Alberto Quadrio Curzio, che non è potuto essere presente come avrebbe desiderato.
GOR’KIJ: UNA CONFESSIONE ALCUNE OSSERVAZIONI
“Una confessioneâ€ (“Ispovedâ€) è il titolo di impronta tolstojana che Gor’kij ha voluto dare a un suo “romanzo breveâ€, scritto nel 1908. L’opera ha suscitato le critiche di Lenin e dei bolscevichi, perché è la storia di un “cercatoreâ€ e “costruttore di Dioâ€. Secondo l’ideologia di Lenin un bolscevico, come era Gor’kij, non doveva interessarsi alla ricerca di Dio, ma essere ateo e basta. In realtà il movimento dei “cercatori di Dioâ€ fu una vera e propria corrente, che si diffuse proprio nel movimento socialdemocratico negli anni 1907-1910, forse anche come reazione alla sconfitta della rivoluzione del 1905. Del movimento fecero parte personalità che divennero poi importanti nel movimento bolscevico, come LunaÄarskij e filosofi come Bogdanov. Il romanzo di Gor’kij, che ha anche una forte impronta anticlericale, è la storia spirituale, tormentata e complessa, di un giovane monaco, o ex-monaco, alla ricerca della verità , e dei suoi molti incontri, positivi e negativi. Fra gli incontri positivi, lona e legudiil. Matvej, il protagonista, diverrà un costruttore di Dio, nella sua autentica fusione col popolo, e con la fede del popolo, che renderà possibile il “miracoloâ€: una giovane paralizzata riprenderà a camminare.
INFANZIA: MEMORIA E COSTRUZIONE DI UN MITO
Se, secondo la definizione di Mircea Eliade, il mito è “una storia inventata per rispondere a una domanda e a un’angosciaâ€, un’autobiografia è il luogo privilegiato per riordinare le proprie esperienze, dare un senso al percorso della propria vita, definire quei miti di sé di cui l’adulto ha bisogno. Nel caso di Gor’kij l’attitudine a creare miti è stata più volte rilevata dai critici, e nessuno scrittore come lui, forse neppure Tolstoj, fu trasformato in un mito quand’era ancora in vita, talvolta suo malgrado. Come scrive ChodaseviÄ, “Riteneva suo dovere presentarsi all’umanità , alle ‘masse’, con l’immagine e nella posa che da lui quelle masse si aspettavano ed esigevano in cambio del loro affetto.â€ Possiamo dire che per Gor’kij la scrittura di un’autobiografia rispondeva a molteplici bisogni. Dal punto di vista psicologico, il racconto di sé svolge la funzione terapeutica di curare la sua anima malata, dal punto di vista artistico gli consente di elaborare, mettere a punto il sistema mitopoietico che sta alla base della sua creazione, mentre come personaggio pubblico Gor’kij può precisare e correggere, fornendone per così dire una versione autorizzata, il mito di sé come vagabondo, bosjak, scrittore venuto dal popolo, figlio “amaroâ€ della Russia mnogostradal’naja. Non si può poi ignorare ciò che è stato sempre messo in rilievo dalla critica sovietica, e cioè che l’emigrato politico Maksim Gor’kij, scrivendo Detstvo nel 1912-13 a Capri, si serve delle proprie memorie anche per meditare sulle sorti della Russia, per capire i motivi del fallimento della rivoluzione e individuare motivi di speranza per il futuro dell’Â«uomo russo». E infine c’è il dialogo a distanza con Tolstoj e i suoi Infanzia, Adolescenza e Giovinezza. Tutto questo insieme di aspettative e tensioni diverse fa di Detstvo uno dei lavori più ricchi e complessi dello scrittore, e la riscoperta dell’opera di Gor’kij che auspicano gli organizzatori di questa giornata di studio potrebbe partire proprio dalla riscoperta della sua trilogia autobiografica, e di Infanzia in primo luogo, che in passato ha conosciuto un grande successo, e che perfino i simbolisti russi di primo Novecento, Blok, Merežkovskij, Zinaida Gippius, Filosofov avevano accolto con attenzione ed entusiasmo.
PERSONAGGI E PODPOL’E SOCIALE NELL’OPERA PRIMA DI GOR’KIJ
Pur coi precedenti di Dostoevskij (Umiliati e offesi, Memorie del sottosuolo), di Leskov (Il viaggiatore incantato, Odnodum, Å eramur) e di Korolenko (L’evaso di Sachalin, In cattiva compagnia), Gor’kij presenta, coi suoi stranniki, brodjagi e bosjaki, il mondo dei primi racconti e bozzetti: da Makar Čudra (1892) a Čelkaš (1895), sino ai personaggi di Na dne (1902) e ai byvšie ljudi (I coniugi Orlov). In questi derelitti, assetati di libertà , che vivono nel podpol’e della società , si ritrovano oltre gli uomini (Konovalov, Vasilij, Emel’jan Piljaj, ecc.), almeno due figure femminili, Mal’va (1897) e la ragazza di Ventisei e una (1899), magistralmente sbozzate. Nei vocaboli podpol’e e dno, citati in vari dizionari antichi e recenti (Dal’, Makarov, Accademia delle Scienze), si cerca l’origine dell’uso fattone in letteratura.
Dopo il grande successo dei primi due lavori teatrali rappresentati nel 1902 al Teatro dell'Arte, "Na dne" e "Mescane", Gorkij torna al teatro due anni dopo, nel 1904, con un nuovo testo, "Dacniki", scritto per la compagnia di Stanislavskij e Nemirovic ma da loro rifiutato: è la Komissarzevskaja a portarlo in scena, scatenando furiose polemiche. Al centro del lavoro un gruppo di ricchi borghesi e di intellettuali: mentre i personaggi maschili si dimostrano arroganti e volgari, le loro mogli, sorelle, figlie reagiscono, si indignano, manifestano una precisa volontà di uscire dalla meschina esistenza a cui vengono costrette, dominata da avidità , indifferenza, corruzione. Il lavoro viene aspramente criticato dal gruppo riunito intorno a Merezkovskij e Filosofov, che accusano Gor'kij di superficialità e banalità , mentre il pubblico giovane lo sostiene. Gor'kij inizia, con "Dacniki", una serie di lavori dedicati all'intelligencija: nel complesso periodo che ruota intorno alla domenica di sangue e alle prime due Dume, l'intera società russa viene posta di fronte a problemi e responsabilità di straordinaria gravità , a cui gli intellettuali, almeno per Gor'kij, si dimostrano incapaci di dare risposte valide e concrete.
L’EPOPEA DI UN UOMO SENZA QUALITÀ: KLIM SAMGIN
Nel suo ultimo romanzo fiume, “La vita di Klim Samginâ€ (1924- 1936) rimasto incompiuto, Gorkij si estranea dalle problematiche del nuovo corso sovietico. Lontano dal realismo socialista sembra piuttosto inserirsi nello spirito del nuovo romanzo europeo (Thomas Mann, Musil), dimostrando di trovarsi perfettamente a suo agio con le rivelazioni dell'inconscio, le teorie dello spazio psicologico, il flusso della coscienza. Grande epopea delle idee, quest’opera testamento guarda a ritroso, ripercorrendo le suggestioni, le passioni, le ossessioni che hanno occupato le menti dell'intelligencija russa nei 40 anni precedenti la rivoluzione d'ottobre. Al centro: un personaggio meschino (storia di un’anima vuota è il sottotitolo del romanzo), bloccato nella sua crescita emotiva da antiche nevrosi irrisolte. E’ un uomo che inventa se stesso, convinto che basti un buon sistema di frasi a fare l'uomo. La forza delle ideologie offre comodo riparo alla pochezza spirituale dell'uomo mediocre che si affaccia alla storia e ritiene di poter continuare a tessere la propria rete di grettezze quotidiane sotto l’imperio e l’ipnosi di formule assolute.
VAREN’KA OLESOVA, UNA “BELLE DAME SANS MERCIâ€ RUSSA
Il racconto Varen’ka Olesova è stato pubblicato per la prima volta nel mensile di A. L. Volynskij, “Severnyj vestnikâ€, nel 1898, nei numeri 3, 4 e 5 corrispondenti rispettivamente ai mesi di marzo, aprile e maggio. Sotto il titolo era scritta la parola “raccontoâ€ seguita dall’epigrafe: “Cupido, a massimo tormento delle creature terrene, fa sì che non sempre amino la persona da cui sono amate, e viceversa.â€ François de Salignac de La Mothe Fénelon, Les aventures de Télémaque, (in russo, nella traduzione di Tred’jakovskij). Nell’edizione “Znanieâ€, la novella è datata 1897. In quello stesso anno, come Maksim Gor’kij dirà nel marzo del 1900 a D.D. Protopopov, sono stati scritti anche gli altri racconti che compongono i primi tre volumi. Preparando Varen’ka Olesova per l’edizione “Knigaâ€, Gor’kij sposta la data al 1896. Il racconto è compreso in tutte le edizioni delle opere dello scrittore. Varen’ka Olesova è un racconto di cento pagine. È la storia di Ippolit SergeeviÄ Polkanov, un giovane professore di botanica, scettico ma democratico, ironico ma altruista, che un’estate alla fine degli anni Ottanta deve lasciare Pietroburgo e raggiungere la sorella nella sua lontana casa di campagna. Elizaveta Sergeevna è appena rimasta vedova e desidera la compagnia del fratello per avere la possibilità di ricevere in casa senza suscitare maldicenze il suo giovane amante e futuro sposo, Benkovskij. La bella terrazza, riparata da un pergolato, si affaccia su un parco, non lontano ci sono un fiume e un bosco. Dalla tenuta vicina arriva regolarmente in visita Varen’ka Olesova, la giovane figlia di un ex ufficiale, gottoso e delirante. L’Olesova già dalle prime parole con cui Elizaveta Sergeevna la descrive al fratello è presentata al lettore come una specie di prodigio soggiogante, e “un mostro dal punto di vista spiritualeâ€. Lei “vince tuttiâ€ con la sua bellezza, l’insolenza, la spregiudicatezza. Gor’kij sembra aver creato il suo personaggio sul modello di una “dark ladyâ€, una spietata e ginnica allumeuse, innamorata solo di uomini volitivi e ribelli, come il ladro di cavalli insanguinato e legato su un carro cui dice di aver consacrato il suo cuore. Varen’ka Olesova e Ippolit SergeeviÄ parlano dei contadini di cui la ragazza dice di conoscere l’orribile natura e che punisce a colpi di frusta, discutono di romanzi francesi e li paragonano a quelli russi – così noiosi perché riproducono la realtà per quello che è – dice Varen’ka. Ippolit SergeeviÄ è sicuro della propria superiorità intellettuale e spirituale, è addirittura convinto – anticipando così le teorie elaborate da Gor’kij successivamente – di poter trasferire con l’energia del proprio pensiero idee più giuste nella testa della ragazza, ma è sedotto da quei discorsi su Dio, da quel vitalismo tenace, dai muscoli tesi ed esibiti, dal mistero preraffaellita di quei gonfi abiti bianchi o dell’immagine della fanciulla armata dei remi della barca come di due alabarde e riflessa nell’acqua del fiume. Il bosco, il fiume, il temporale, puntualmente personificati diventano lo scenario metaforico – a tratti grandioso – di un ingannevole slancio vitale e di uno stato d’animo ferito.
I BASSIFONDI DELL’ANIMA RUSSA: GOR’KIJ E DOSTOEVSKIJ
Apparentemente tutto sembra separare questi due autori. L’uno, Dostoevskij, ha biasimato aspramente la rivoluzione, rappresentato i rivoluzionari come dei demoni e il palazzo di cristallo come l’assurda utopia da combattere e l’altro, Gorkij , l’annunciatore della tempesta, il portavoce della rivoluzione, nonostante le sue violente proteste contro la repressione cieca nei primi anni del regime comunista, ha voluto credere nel felice avvenire dell’umanità e combattere per realizzarlo. Gorkij non ama Dostoevskij. Parlando di se stesso si definisce più come un narratore, affascinato dalle particolarità esterne delle cose piuttosto che un investigatore del mistero dell’anima umana, degli enigmi della vita. Al di là di queste divergenze evidenti, desideriamo mostrare le radici comuni di questi due tronchi della letteratura russa, collo scopo di sottrarre Gorkij all’influenza unilaterale del realismo socialista e ricollegarlo alla comune matrice russa alla quale appartiene. I paralleli si limiteranno nell’ambito di questa relazione a due opere: i “Bassifondiâ€ di Gorkij e “l’Idiotaâ€ di Dostoevskij.
GOR’KIJ E IL NUOVO MONDO: UNA SVOLTA NELL’IMPEGNO
L’intervento analizza i tre bozzetti, raccolti sotto il titolo “In Americaâ€ (1906), che presentano le impressioni di Gor’kij su New York, i suoi abitanti e la loro vita e li confronta con le lettere scritte nello stesso periodo ad amici e parenti, come pure con alcuni atteggiamenti verso gli Stati Uniti diffusi nell’Europa della Belle Epoque.